Benchmark.‘Heavy’ deposition of up to 30 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail The statocyst is considered the primary sound detection organ in cephalopods. Alongside peripheral hairs and epidermal hairs, Sepia officinalis is able to detect local water movement by detecting vibrations (Hanlon & Messenger, 1996; Samson et al., 2014). The statocyst is also responsive for equilibrium and movement in the water column (Solé et al., 2017). OBIS (Ocean BiodiversityInformation System), 2023. Global map of species distribution using gridded data. Available from: Ocean Biogeographic Information System. www.iobis.org. Accessed: 2023-11-29 Challier, L., Dunn, M.R., & Robin, J.-P., 2005. Trends in age-at-recruitment and juvenile growth of cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis, from the English Channel. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 62, 1671-1682.

Benchmark. A decrease in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail Boal. J.G., 1997. Female choice of males in cuttlefish (Mollusca: Cephalopoda). Behaviour, 134,975-988. Neves dos Santos, M., Jorge Saldanha, H. & Garcia, A., 2002. Observations on by-catch from a tuna trap fishery off the Algarve (southern Portugal). ICCAT, 54, 1726-1732.Sensitivity assessment.Adults are able to move out of the way of a lot of danger but are at risk of being caught and/or damaged by fishing equipment. However, juveniles and eggs are more vulnerable due to their reduced ability to move out of the way. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘ Low’ but with 'low' confidence. Resilience is probably ‘ Medium’ and sensitivity is assessed as ‘ Medium’. Gestal, C., Guerra, A., Pascual, S. & Azevedo, C., 2002. On the life cycle of Aggregata eberthi and observations on Aggregata octopiana (Apicomplexa, Aggregatidae) from Galicia (NE Atlantic). European Journal of Protistology, 37, 427-435. The coccidian Aggregata eberthi appears to use the digestive tract of the cuttlefish as part of their sexual reproduction (Gestal et al., 2002). This has been known to lead to an increase in gut infections, which reduces the function of the digestive system and limits the absorption of nutrients (Gestal et al., 2002). However, there is little evidence of direct mortality as a result of microbial infection (Hochberg, 1990).

Goff, R.L. & Daguzan, J., 1991. Growth and life cycles of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis L. (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) in south brittany (France). Bulletin of Marine Science, 49, 341-348.It has been estimated that the temperature limits of Sepia officinalis are 10 and 30°C. Below 10°C individuals do not appear to feed and remain inactive until ultimate mortality (Guerra, 2006). Individuals hatched in lower temperatures also have less inner yolk, presumably due to the increase in embryonic development time. This means once hatched the juveniles are under more pressure to gather food (Guerra, 2006). Embryos ceased development when cultured at 9°C. However, when the temperature was raised development continued, which suggested that eggs could almost go into a ‘hibernation’ period under lower temperatures. It is not known how long this period can last for before mortality (Bouchaud & Daguzan, 1990; Challier et al., 2004). Oxygen demand for embryos is also increased at lower temperatures making embryos in colder water more susceptible to hypoxic conditions within the egg sac (Woods, 1999; cited in Lesser, 2013). Lifespan.If food availability is restricted in early life this may result in delayed maturation and an extended lifespan (Boletzky, 1974). Mortality in females occurs after spawning, which can take several weeks to a few months (Guerra, 2006). Biannual life cycles have been observed frequently. In the English Channel, hatchlings born from July to September grew rapidly. The juveniles migrate from the inshore nursery grounds to overwintering in deeper waters. They return inshore as soon as they exhibit the first signs of sexual maturity (Guerra, 2006).

Danis, B., Bustamante, P., Cotret, O., Teyssié, J.L., Fowler, S.W. & Warnau, M., 2005. Bioaccumulation of PCBs in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis from the seawater, sediment and food pathways. Environmental Pollution, 134, 113-122. Sherrill, J., Spelman, L.H., Reidel, C.L. & Montali, R.J., 2000. Common cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis) mortality at the national zoological park: Implications for clinical management. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 31, 523-531.Honestly, due to what's been going on with the world, It's been put on hold for many months until now.

Sensitivity assessment. The species has well-developed eyes so can detect movement sufficiently well to be susceptible to visual disturbance. However, the species will swim away or hide when any presence threatens, therefore,recovery is immediate. Visual cues may cause a behavioural response but due to the mobility of the species, the pressure is unlikely to cause mortality or interfere with reproduction. Hence, resistance is ‘ High’, resilience is ‘ High’, and the species is likely to be ‘ Not sensitive’. Chaddha, R. 2007. Antomy of a cuttlefish. NOVA (online). Accessed: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/anatomy-cuttlefish.html (17/10/18). Merseyside BioBank., 2018. Merseyside BioBank (unverified). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/iou2ld accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01. Fungal infections can appear on Sepia officinalis but these are usually the result of trauma to the skin or a weakening of the immune system (Harms et al., 2006). Cells known as ovoid cells in the heart tissue are known to target bacterial toxins in the blood. This shows a strong immune response to microbial infection and suggests a tolerance to them (Beuerlin & Schipp, 1998). Koueta, N. & Boucaud-Camou, E., 2001. Basic growth relations in experimental rearing of early juvenile cuttlefish Sepia officinalis L. (Mollusca: Cephalopoda). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 265, 75-87.

Palmegiano, G.B. & D'Apote, M.P., 1983. Combined effects of temperature and salinity on cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis L.) hatching. Aquaculture, 35, 259-264.